Inclusion Model and the Council for Exceptional Children

 

Wanda Lee Ann Melchor

University of Central Florida

College of Education and Graduate Studies

Fall 2011

            Inclusion is defined as mainstreaming or the act of placing students into general education classes and other school activities.  Many countries including the U.S. have adopted inclusion practices with the goal of improving the education of individuals with disabilities.  In the U.S., the passing of the Free and Appropriate Education (FAPE) legislation supports the ideology of inclusion.  While the U.S. has become one of the main proponents of inclusion, inclusion models vary from state to state.  Most states use the inclusion model for students with mild to moderate disabilities.  In addition, there are several levels of inclusion including full inclusion where students spend their entire day in general education classrooms, to partial inclusion-integrated models where students spend part of their day in special education services and most of their day in the general education classroom.  Also, there is a discrepancy in the U.S. between private and public education.  Most private schools do not tend to be held to the same federal standards as public schools.  NCLB, FAPE and IDEA only applies to schools that receive federal funding.

            Inclusion has become a controversial issue over the last 50 years.  Parents of children with severe disabilities that are in support of inclusion report several benefits.  First, children are exposed to more academic and functional skills in the general education classroom.  Non-disabled students are exposed to disabled children with the hope of building tolerance and acceptance.  Disabled students are exposed to social norms and develop social skills.  Disabled children go to school with their non-disabled siblings.

            Parents of children with severe disabilities also report disadvantages to inclusion.  These include the child’s condition may not benefit from inclusion, the burden of the child’s disability is placed on the other students and the teacher and the child does not get the desired level of attention needed from their teacher.  In addition, parents report the child can become overwhelmed by both the social and academic environment and expectations of the general education classroom.  Often teachers and other students do not have the skills needed to deal with the disabled child’s needs or behaviors.  There is also concern that the child will not be treated appropriately by other children, especially with the rising issues of bullying in the schools.

            Educators, parents and critics of inclusion also question the use of partial inclusion claiming that it creates a fragmented education for individuals with disabilities.  While those in support of inclusion report that not allowing inclusion was a violation of the civil rights of individuals with disabilities (Johnstone, 2010).  In the U.S., inclusion was the end result of the desegregation movement.  Inclusion has become the best practice for providing education for individuals with disabilities. 

            One of the main proponents of inclusion is the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC).  The CEC is one of the largest international organizations dedicated toward improving education of individuals with disabilities.  The mission of the CEC is to improve, through excellence and advocacy, the education and quality of life for children and youth with exceptionalities and to enhance the engagement of their families.  CEC defines their key values as promoting:

·   Dignity and worth of all individuals.

·   Diversity and inclusiveness.

·   Advocacy and social justice.

·   Professional excellence, integrity, and accountability.

·   Full participation in society.

·   Effective individualized education.

·   Family engagement.

·   Collaboration and community.

·   Responsibility to members.

CEC also sets high ethical standards for professionals working with individuals with disabilities.  These include:

Professional special educators are guided by the CEC professional ethical principles and practice standards in ways that respect the diverse characteristics and needs of individuals with exceptionalities and their families. They are committed to upholding and advancing the following principles:

A.    Maintaining challenging expectations for individuals with exceptionalities to develop the highest possible learning outcomes and quality of life potential in ways that respect their dignity, culture, language, and background.

B.     Maintaining a high level of professional competence and integrity and exercising professional judgment to benefit individuals with exceptionalities and their families.

C.     Promoting meaningful and inclusive participation of individuals with exceptionalities in their schools and communities.

D.    Practicing collegially with others who are providing services to individuals with exceptionalities.

E.     Developing relationships with families based on mutual respect and actively involving families and individuals with exceptionalities in educational decision making.

F.      Using evidence, instructional data, research and professional knowledge to inform practice.

G.    Protecting and supporting the physical and psychological safety of individuals with exceptionalities.

H.    Neither engaging in nor tolerating any practice that harms individuals with exceptionalities.

I. Practicing within the professional ethics, standards, and policies of CEC; upholding laws, regulations, and policies that influence professional practice; and advocating improvements in laws, regulations, and policies.

J. Advocating for professional conditions and resources that will improve learning outcomes of individuals with exceptionalities.

K.    Engaging in the improvement of the profession through active participation in professional organizations.

L.     Participating in the growth and dissemination of professional knowledge and skills.  

Item # C above emphasizes their belief in the practice of inclusion and their expectation that professionals working with individuals with disabilities also support inclusive practices. 

            As both a teacher and a parent of children with special needs, I do believe that there are benefits to inclusion.  Like the parents reported above, disabled children that are exposed to their non-disabled peers are exposed to higher academic standards, increased social interactions that assists disabled students with learning social norms, increases communication skills and helps non-disabled students become familiar with disabilities including physical, mental and learning disabilities.  While the goal of inclusion is to provide disabled students with more normal opportunities and to provide social acceptance by their non-disabled peers, there are disadvantages to inclusion.  This includes the risk of bullying, being ostracized and the increased social pressures and stresses of trying to fit in.

            While I am overall supportive of inclusion, I do have an issue with inclusion practices.  The right of a child to participate in inclusion seems automatically imposed upon the child and the parents.  There does not seem to be in place any procedures for allowing the child or the parents to determine what level of inclusion the child should participate in, if at all.  I do believe there are times when inclusion is not appropriate to meet the needs of the child and their disability.  The stress and inability to cope with their disability, combined with not being able to successfully participate academically and socially in inclusion combined with the needs of their disability and the resources available to them in the inclusion environment should factor in to whether a child or their parents can elect not to participate in full or partial inclusion. 

One of the main considerations in determining inclusion practices and modifying the education environment, is to consider whether general education teachers have the ability to meet the needs of students with disabilities.  Teacher attitudes toward educating students with disabilities is one of the main factors in determining the quality of education disabled students receive in the mainstream environment.  Teacher attitudes not only encompass the teacher’s attitudes toward the disabled child, but also the teacher’s perception in her abilities to teach disabled individuals and non-disabled students combined in the same classroom (Gaad, 2007).  Under inclusion, teachers do not have the right to determine whether they have the skills and the ability to meet the educational needs of disabled students.  It is automatically imposed on all teachers.  It is important to consider if the teacher’s attitude and perceptions of her ability to educate disabled students determine that she feels inadequate to do so, then how effective is her instructional methods and the quality of education she provides to the disabled student?  Clearly, if inclusion is to be the only acceptable method of education, then teachers must be adequately prepared and trained in order to meet the needs of both the disabled and non-disabled child.

            Overall, I believe inclusion is working to improve the quality of life for individuals with disabilities.  I also believe that it is bringing disabilities into social acceptance.  Like any other educational practice, inclusion needs continual review to improve the quality and integrity of the process.  Inclusion is a relatively new concept historically. It will take time and effort to continually improve the application of inclusion.  I believe agencies like CEC will continue to strive to ensure the quality of education for individuals with disabilities.

References

CEC (2011).  About the Council for Exceptional Children. 

Retrieved from http://www.cec.sped.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=About_CEC

Gaad, E. (2007).  Primary Mainstream Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Inclusion of Students with                                            

Special Educational Needs in the Private Sector: A Perspective from Dubai.  International Journal of Special Education, vol. 22, n. 2.  Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/EJ814493.pdf

Johnstone, C. (2010).  Inclusive Education Policy Implementation: Implications for Teacher

Workforce Development in Trinidad and Tobago.  International Journal of Special Education, vol. 25 n. 3. Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/EJ909034.pdf

Florida's RtI Model: An Overview

Lee Ann Melchor

University of Cenral Florida

College of Education and Graduate Studies

Overview of Florida’s RtI Model

The RtI Model is designed to provide a multi-tiered approach to providing individualized instruction and interventions delivered at the right level to meet the individual student’s needs.  RtI is highly centered around data collection and assessment to ensure students are properly referred to special education services and that no student population is overrepresented in special education (FDOE, 2011).  RtI can assist district with delivering services efficiently and managing their limited resources.  RtI is a cyclical process of defining the student’s needs, analysis of why it is occurring, implementation of services and Evaluation of what is working and the process starts over.  Since 2004, Florida has continually worked on improving the process of RtI.

Since the implementation of RtI, Florida students have shown increases in reading as well as decreased special education enrollment.  In addition, students who also received positive behavioral supports (PBS) showed a significant decline in behavioral issues.

One of the leading advantages of RtI is that it can assist districts with meeting requirements under NCLB and IDEA as they assist schools with working toward meeting their annual yearly goals under AYP (FDOE, 2011).  RtI also serves as the basic framework for all programs in Florida administered by Florida Department of Education (FDOE) to ensure there is continuity of services and in an effort for FDOE to maximize and manage their resources.

The goal of RtI is to use evidence based interventions and to ensure interventions are driven by the needs of the student.  RtI also ensures that a child does not stay in special education services their entire academic career, but only receives services in the least restrictive environment for only as necessary. 

Tier I

The school provides all students access to high quality instruction inside the classroom.  Tier 1 services include general education services and behavioral instruction to all students across settings.

Tier II

The school provides small groups intervention services for those who need more support than Tier 1.  This level is more targeted and instruction/intervention and supplemental support provided in addition to the general education services and behavioral instruction received under Tier 1.

Tier III

The school develops and implements interventions to meet the individual needs of students.  This level is the most intense level of intervention.  Tier III is highly focused, intense interventions with a very narrow concentrated focus.  In addition, the student receives supports under Tier I and Tier II.

Teaching and Interviewing in Each Tier

Under RtI, learning standards are structured to ensure seamless learning from grade to grade.  It is required of the teachers to understand and use formal and informal assessments to ensure that data collected is valid and reliable in developing instructional methods.  Teachers are responsible for ensuring that students make adequate yearly progress and to refer students as needed for more intense services. 

In order to meet these requirements, teachers must be highly qualified and understand the RtI process.  In addition, teachers must be vested in ensuring the success of their students and the RtI system.  Teachers must be committed to ongoing progress monitoring to ensure student progress and the effectiveness of interventions used. 

Under Tier 1, teachers are responsible for normal delivery of instruction and behavior support to all students. In addition, teachers are responsible for gathering information and conducting assessments to determine whether more interventions are needed.

Under Tier 2, teachers provide all the instructional delivery of services, but also supplemental support to groups of targeted students.  General education teachers may provide more intense assistance with reading or other subjects or work cooperatively with other teachers and professionals delivering services.

Under Tier 3, teachers provide intensive specialized services and behavioral support.  The student may not be serviced solely in the general education classroom.  The student may need pull-outs for intensive services such as speech, intensive reading or other services.

Changing Roles of Teachers when Implementing RtI

Teachers may provide the services and interventions individually or as part of a larger team, working cooperatively with other teachers and professionals who are delivering services.  In addition, teachers are data collectors, record keepers and assessors of students’ abilities.  Also, teachers assume the role of advocate to ensure students are only placed in the right level of services needed only for as long as needed. Interventions can be effective when delivered by a variety of school personnel, as long as the personnel are adequately trained to deliver the intervention (Tackett, 2009).

Issues and Solutions

Some districts in the State of Florida may not be as advanced in the RtI process as some districts.  In addition, districts, schools and individual teachers may be reluctant to devote the time and resources to successfully implementing and utilizing RtI.  It is imperative that districts, schools and teachers receive continual training, participate in advisory teams and RtI improvement in order to buy in to the success of RtI.  Successful implementation of RtI often relies on the ability of teachers and school leaders to implement RtI practices with fidelity (Tackett, 2009). 

Additional Resources

There are many resources devoted to RtI.  For assessment, this includes the National Center on Response to Intervention.  For data management, there is the Progress Monitoring and Reporting Network.  The Florida Center for Reading Resource provides guidance for determining instructional reading levels.  A completed list of additional resources can be found at http://www.florida-rti.org/Resources/index.htm

References

Education, F. D. (2011). Florida Response to Instruction/Intervention. Retrieved from http://www.florida-rti.org/index.htm: http://www.florida-rti.org/index.htm

Institute., F. C. (n.d.). Recognition and Response: Findings from the First Implementation Study. Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED506946.pdf:http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED506946.pdf

Tackett, K. e. (2009). Implementing Response to Intervention: Practices and Perspectives from Five Schools--Frequently Asked Questions. Retrieved from Center on Instruction.: http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED521572.pdf

4 Major Theories of Speech and Language Development

 

 

Wanda Lee Ann Melchor

University of Central Florida

Department of Education and Graduate Studies

Fall 2011

A Survey of Communication Disorders for the Classroom Teacher, focuses on 4 primary theories of language development.  These theories include Behaviorism, Social Theory, Psycholinguistic Theory and Cognitive Theory.  Each theory builds the foundation of educational pedagogy and educational psychology in the classroom.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism could be broken into two parts:  the conceptual study of behavior and the applied practice.  Both are based on Skinner's theory of verbal behavior.  Psychoanalytic theory, language development theory and Applied Behavior Analysis for Teachers and other professional use the concepts of behaviorism.  Behaviorism is taught in classroom management techniques, educational psychology and communication theory.  Behaviorism, as applied in communication theory, focuses on the function of language, the stimuli that evoke a verbal response, and the consequence of the performance (Lue, 2001). 

The use of behaviorism has created significant improvement for students with language disorders and delays as well as students who need to bridge the achievement gap.  Studying behaviorism and applying behaviorism in the classroom also benefits teachers and other professionals who work with SLD and other disabled students.  Behaviorism research also can assist administrators who wish to design functional curriculum to benefit students while meeting educational standards (Ross, 2004).

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The use of behaviorism as it applies to communication is in essence the study of how the environment both provokes and reinforces verbal and nonverbal communication.  The theory centers around the thought children are conditioned by the environment and reinforcement of their verbal and nonverbal communication. 

Skinner’s theory of verbal behavior in his work Verbal Behavior, introduced the several critical concepts including the rate of response in verbal communication.  In addition, he emphasized schedules of reinforcement as a primary motivator in speech, language and communication.  Essentially, Skinner believed that people are the primary causes of communication.  This can be evidenced by placing a ELL child who rarely speaks in a seating arrangement surrounded by children that otherwise talk a lot.  The ELL child will be provoked into speaking by the prompts of the other students.

The theory of competency based training and vocational theory research is based upon the principles of behaviorism.  The Performance-Based Teacher Education movement which promoted the theory of Competency Based Training (CBT). The theoretical origins of CBT derive from the principals of behaviorism and systems theory – both of which are conceptual theories.  Currently, there is a debate in education of the United States regarding teacher salaries based upon performance measures including student achievement and test scores.  Although controversial, most elements of CBT were contributed by specialists with a background in either one or both concepts (Hodge, 2007).

The practical aspect of behaviorism in the classroom would be to include strategies such as Applied Behavior Analysis including studying the observable behaviors, collecting and recording data, developing a target behavior to work on, develop a hypothesis about the behavior and develop a behavioral plan to address these behaviors.  Next, implement the strategies and collect and record data.  Finally, you would analyze the data to determine if the strategy was successful and make any changes. ABA is a cyclical process.  The materials needed are forms and other materials for the recording and data collection for the teacher.  Also, picture cue cards and other trigger objects to promote desired behavioral outcomes for the student are beneficial.

Psycholinguistic Theory

            The basis of psycholinguistic theory of language development and acquisition is derived from the theory that the brain contains a mental plan or map to understand and generate language and the plan is guided by an independent rule system (Lue, 2001). This is basically the study of how the brain receives, interprets and applies language.  Psycholinguistic theorists believe that language is taught and influenced by the both culture and the environment.  Psycholinguistic theorists believe by examining these cultural and environmental factors combined with the knowledge of how the brain works, they can predict the expected outcomes as well as the rate of the language acquisition. 

            Noam Chomsky pioneered the study of psycholinguistic theory.  He believed that humans already have a natural ability to speak, including the use of syntax and that language is automatically hardwired in the brain.  Chomsky was highly critical of Skinner’s theory of behaviorism.  Chomsky believed that language is not learned, but an automatic ability and that language could not be taught.

            By manipulating the environment, under psycholinguistic theory, educators have tried to create instructional techniques to create a functional fundamental curriculum. Psycholinguistic theory is successful when combined with using the students’ own cultural awareness and using decontextualized techniques such as memorizing sight words to teach language.  The most useful and successful technique used in psycholinguistic theory in teaching language development encompasses practicing the four language skills of reading, listening, speaking, and writing can provide full context.

            Psycholinguistic theory research has the greatest benefit for ELL learners.  To benefit ELL learners, educators must look at the child’s history to determine whether the child has a speech and language developmental delay in their native language.  This applies to both oral and written language.  A child who has a speech or language delay in his native language will struggle with learning English, while a child that is proficient in his own language will acquire English more quickly. 

Psycholinguistic theory can be most effective for the ELL learner.  By utilizing the child’s strengths, incorporating familiar aspects of the culture, creating an environment such as labeling items in the environment with both the English and native language words and use of wrote and sight word recognition.  In the classroom, the teacher can incorporate aspects of the child’s culture and native language such as selecting books in English about a child or item from the child’s culture during reading, studying the child’s country in English for Social Studies or utilizing picture cue cards labeled with common objects found in the classroom or in the lesson in both English and the child’s native language.  Materials may include labels, books, pictures and other items.

Cognitive/Interactive Theory

            Jean Piaget was one of the leading pioneers of cognitive theory.  Piaget introduced the theory of developmental stages and that language is acquired through the stages with each ability or stage becoming more complex.  Under cognitive theory, there are many factors that influence language development including thought, mental ability, age, and other related factors.  Piaget believed that thought was a precursor for language and that language was merely the outward expression of thought. 

            The use of a combination of mental representation or mental ability and language skill in verbal language therefore, the use of language and fluency, combined with mental representation equals the abstract, implicit, and underlying linguistic system in a speaker’s mind/brain (VanPatten, 2010).  Cognitive theory emphasizes the higher order of thought and ability as a person moves through the developmental stages.

Cognitive theory combines the use of the environment factors, cultural grammar, and vocabulary with the mental and developmental processes that assess and interpret the environmental and cultural factors.  The two major contributions cognitive theory has made toward language development theory are the role of the environment in the development of language and the developing mental perspective of the child as the child matures (Lue, 2001).

            In the classroom, the practical application would be to utilize strategies that are age appropriate including selecting materials and developing lesson plans that are specific age and developmentally geared toward that child.  In addition, the teacher can create a supportive learning environment through the use of classroom seating arrangements, providing zones for both quiet and interactive play and learning, adjusting the classroom lighting, removing distracting items and noise and other environmental modifications.  Materials that can be utilized are seating, lighting, and background music, among others.

Social Interactionist Theory

            Social interactionist theory is the belief that language is developed through the use of social contact and relationships and that these relationships provide a framework for language comprehension, content, context and form (Lue, 2001).  While Chomsky believed that language has could not be taught as it is an ingrained ability rather than a learned ability, Vygotsky introduced the thought that it is the environment or relationships with others that stimulates communication.  Vygotsky first introduced the social interaction theory introducing social constructivism, based on zone of proximal development.  Social interactionist theory concurs with this approach; exploring ‘the distance between students with the actual developmental level determined by independent problem-solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers’ (Shawer, 2008).

            Vygotosky studied the influence of child development on language development noting the child’s culture and interpersonal communication influenced the child’s learning ability.  Vygotsky believed that children developed higher levels of thought and mental abilities as they progressed into different stages of life from infancy to adult and they acquired knowledge through their interactions with others throughout their life including with their parents, their community and society.  Therefore, children’s language was influenced both by interactions with others and their cultural but also social norms.  The child learns language patterns, the speed in which he speak, fluency and written language through these factors.  This has also been referred to a guided participation (guided by society), cultural mediation (the influence of culture) and internalization­­ ­­- the thought of knowing how (Santrock, 2004). 

            Social interactionist theory centers on student cognitive change.  Cognitive change includes the processes of reading, writing, speaking, and listening abilities combined with affective change (motivation and interests) in the use of language development.  The most important role social interaction theory provides is the role that social experiences play on the role of pragmatics.  Also, those social experiences provide a framework in which children apply the use of language.  Social interaction theory can be applied in creating curriculum for speech and language development, reading, writing and listening skills.  It is important to create curriculum that is centered on the principles of active learning, interaction between thought and experience, sequential construction of more complex cognitive schemas and student experiences including social culture, understanding, interests and needs.

            The practical applications in the classroom would be to provide students opportunities to interact with one another and with the teacher.  Successful applications include allowing students to partner with peers to complete assignments, to ask questions, to receive feedback and to utilize conversational speech.  In addition, the teacher can encourage parents to interact with their child and to provide the child multiple social opportunities including developing friends, interacting with their community and participating in social events.  For materials, the teacher can incorporate activities, dvds, pictures, audio or any objects that show social interaction and conversation across a variety of social situations (peer, speaking with adults, cultural, etc.).

           

            All of the theories of language development have overlapping characteristics. While there is no proven theory clearly responsible for the development of language, each theory illustrates the different factors that influence language development.  It is important to understand the concepts of each.  To advocate for one position can be difficult. Many educators in exceptional student education would advocate for behaviorism as behavioral issues cross many areas of learning beyond just speech and language development.  However, many children with speech and language delays associated with other disorders such as autism, appear to be missing the social interaction link.  To advocate for one theory, would be to stress the importance of social interactionist theory as the many behaviors, language patterns, applications of language, learning and thought are influenced by the environment, culture, society and other observable factors found in interactions with others.

            Each theory clearly shows an influence on speech and language development.  It is important to apply each of these theories as needed by the individual and to record strategies, curriculum, internal and outside factors that influence the individuals learning ability.